什么是哲学？

关于哲学学科定位，与其作高深的、烦琐的系统理论论证，不如让我们回到哲学原初状态中去。朴素的理念往往具有不证自明而又清楚明白的特性。在哲学清澈的、透明的活水源头中，我们可以体认哲学的精神，领会哲学的力量。

在希腊哲学传统中，哲学称为“爱智慧”而不是“智慧”，哲学家称为“爱智者”而不是“智者”。

由于智者末流流于诡辩，柏拉图和亚里士多德把智者看成是歪曲真理，玩弄似是而非的智慧的人，亦即诡辩论者。这是希腊哲学传统称哲学为“爱智慧”而不是“智慧”，称哲学家为“爱智者”而不是“智者”的根据所在。

关于德尔斐神庙的箴言——“认识你自己”，苏格拉底的解释是“自知其无知”（即“人应当知道自己无知”）。这一思想在其它哲学传统中同样可以得到印证。在中国哲学传统中，孔子说：“知之为知之，不知为不知，是知也。”老子说：“知人者智，自知者明。”“为学日益，为道日损。损之又损，以至于无。”“知不知，上；不知知，病。”这些话大致说的是一个意思。这就是说，人应当知道自己知识的局限。人应当知道，与未知的海洋相比较，人们已知的点滴，不过沧海一粟。哲学教导人们不满已知的此岸，引领人们向往未知的彼岸。

哲学与其它学科的根本区别在于：哲学不是任何一种知识入门、知识大全或者至上知识，而是对于知识的反省和反思。这种反省和反思依靠人的智能和人的灵性。哲学通过开发人的智能，启发人的灵性，不断激发人的求知本能，培养人的爱智品格。

比如一座知识大厦，其它学科是用来建筑的，而哲学则是用来清场、奠基、检修的。如同建筑和拆迁都得使用脚手架一样，虽然哲学与其它学科使用同样的概念和原理、范畴和命题，但意义却根本不同。

但是，现行哲学从根本上背离了哲学的爱智本性。在现行哲学中，哲学一是被定义为“理论化、系统化的世界观或世界观的理论系统”；二是被定义为“最根本和最一般的方法论”；三是被定义为“一切科学知识（自然科学知识、社会科学知识、思维科学知识）的概括和总结”。在哲学早已告别“一切知识的总汇”和“科学之科学”的今天，在各门具体科学知识早已从哲学中分化出去并得到迅速发展的今天，哲学作为世界观的功能，作为方法论的功能都在转化。在这种情况下，哲学成为任何一种知识（知识入门、知识大全、至上知识），都将使哲学变成“多余的事”，使哲学家变成“多余的人”。

在这样一个时代背景下，“哲学无用论”和“哲学过时论”方兴未艾，构成了对于哲学的真正挑战，严重威胁着哲学的生存和发展。而真正应当承担主要责任的则是现行哲学本身。

针对现行哲学种种误区，我们认为应当在哲学学科定位问题上正本清源：研究哲学既不是对于各门具体知识的概括和总结，也不是对于各门具体知识的评判和裁决，而是对于现有知识的反省和反思，在这种省思中不断表达人的智能的和灵性的诉求。如果非要说哲学是知识的话，那么，哲学是关于无知的“知识”或知识的无知。或者按照库萨的尼古劳的话说，“哲学是一种有学问的无知”：“一个人对自己的无知认识得越清楚，他的学问就越大。”

为什么学习哲学？

学习哲学的理由应当与人们研究哲学的理由是一个问题。这就涉及到了哲学起源问题。

根据亚里士多德的说法，哲学首先根源于人的一种形而上学本能：世界是奇异的，人生是奇异的。人们是由于感到诧异，感到困惑，觉得自己无知才开始研究哲学。这是哲学发生的内在动因。其次，哲学根源于一种社会历史条件：“只是在生活福利所必需的东西有了保证的时候，人们才开始寻求这类知识。”因此，在一个大家为生计而奔波的时代和国度，人们是不会考虑哲学的。只有在文化（文明）达到一定程度的时候和地方，才能产生哲学。这是哲学发生的外部条件。

总之，研究哲学是为了求知，并不是为了实用。求知是爱智的表现。只有获得闲暇的人们，才能发生哲学的兴趣。哲学是一门自由的学问。

人们经常提出一个问题：哲学有什么用？我们的回答是：从实用层面说，哲学的确是“无用”的。学习哲学不仅无助于我们升官发财、争名夺利，甚至由于境界的提高、品位的上升，反而有害于我们对于这些东西的追求和获取。但是，用庄子的话说，“无用者，大用也”。我们可以从两个基本角度来论证哲学所谓“大用”：一是从哲学与具体科学的关系来看，哲学是一切具体科学的不可或缺的前提或基础。我们可以证明：对于任一理论系统，至少存在一个理论原子是这个理论系统所无法证明的。这就是说，对于任一理论系统，至少存在一个假定性的或预设性的理论前提或基础。完成这一假定或预设的正是哲学。譬如，当人们具体地探讨事物某一因果关系时，必定已经一般地确立了因果关系的信念，即“凡事必有因果”；当人们具体地探讨世界某一规律时，必定已经一般地确立了规律的信念，即“凡事必有规律”。因此，归根结底，任一科学命题都蕴涵了至少一个哲学命题。二是从哲学与现实生活的关系来看，哲学是一切现实生活的不可或缺的根本或依据。从任一现实生活问题出发，寻根究底，都会这样那样归结到至少一个哲学问题。比如，当我们提出“为什么学习哲学”这一问题时，即使按照最低标准回答，如“为了考试通过……修满学分……毕业、获得学位……工作……生活”等，只要不断提出“为什么”，就能进入哲学问题。如果我们对于“为什么要工作”这样一类问题，还能给予“为了生活”这样一种似乎比较确定的回答的话，那么我们对于“为什么要生活”这样一类问题，就不能给予任何一种确定的回答了。这是一条界限：凡问题提到了无法回答的地步时，这个问题就是一个哲学问题。与科学问题的回答相比较，哲学问题的回答必定不是一元的，而是多元的。哲学对于具体科学和现实生活的诸如此类的意义和价值，就是它的“用处”所在。

怎样学习哲学？

同样，学习哲学的方法应当与人们研究哲学的方法是一个问题。只有从根本上领会哲学的精神，才能从根本上把握学习以及研究哲学的方法。这又涉及到了哲学以及哲学历史发展问题。

根据黑格尔的观点，哲学史上每一个体系都是哲学本身的一个环节。哲学史是所谓“圆圈的圆圈”。哲学史上的纷纭意见，其实都是精神进展中的合理环节。哲学或哲学史既不是一个思想的展览，也不是一个思想的战场，而是人类精神的进展。正如在人类史上，凡人必死（人都是要死的），任何个人作为个体是不会与世长存的，但他的某些生理的、社会的和心理的因素（如遗传基因、遗产遗业、思想学说等）却通过后代得以在历史上保留、发扬一样，在哲学史上，任何理论作为体系是不会与世长存的，而它的某些因素也同样得以在历史上保留、发扬。

马克思说：“任何真正的哲学都是自己时代精神的精华……它是文明的活的灵魂。”

总之，我们研究哲学既不是为了卖弄自己的渊博，嘲弄别人的浮浅；也不是为了标榜自己的一贯正确，证明别人的一概错误；而是参与一次精神历险。正如每一个人的成长一样，人类的成长同样经历着童年、少年、青年等等的时段。今天，当我们学习和研究例如世界三大哲学传统或西方两大哲学传统时，我们就是在重新体验人类精神成长的历程。童年是幼稚的，但也是天真的。正如每一个人在成长中一样，人类在成长中同样获得了一些宝贵的东西而又丧失了另一些珍贵的东西。成熟就意味着：一方面我们得到了理性，另一方面我们失去了激情。在无知时，我们充满了对于知识的兴趣；在拥有某些知识时，我们反而消解了对于知识的兴趣。哲学的精神是爱智、求知，其中，“爱”的热情、“求”的壮志比任何智慧、任何知识本身更重要；而对于智慧的兴趣、对于知识的兴趣比任何智慧、任何知识本身更根本。因此，我们必须不断重新体验个人和人类曾经的生命历程。只有在登上知识的颠峰，面临无知的深渊时，才是一派哲学境界。

论坛哲学、讲坛哲学、实践哲学

哲学从形态上可以分为论坛哲学、讲坛哲学、实践哲学三类。论坛哲学是指哲学家、哲学工作者以及哲学专业群体面向起码受过一定专门哲学训练的人们发表的哲学言论，主要是指哲学研究。实践哲学是大众在日常生活中奉行的哲学观念。讲坛哲学是哲学精英（哲学家、哲学工作者）面向大众（没有或者尚未受过哲学专门训练的人们）发表的哲学言论，主要是指哲学教学。三者之间无疑是一种互动的关系。毫无疑问，讲坛哲学构成论坛哲学与实践哲学之间的中介。

实践哲学一直是“沉默”的。而讲坛哲学则似乎早于论坛哲学出现。孔子周游列国，“述而不作”，“化三千、七十二”，其哲学言论由其弟子和再传弟子结集为《论语》，成为儒门经典。苏格拉底经常在雅典街市上进行哲学谈话。其弟子柏拉图和再传弟子亚里士多德均有一半著作为对话录形式（柏拉图对话录流传而论文失传，亚里士多德对话录失传而论文流传）。前有学园遗风，后有逍遥余韵。可见当年哲学多半属于讲坛哲学，而且富有魅力。但是，随着书写工具和印刷工具的发明、改进，论坛哲学逐渐高过讲坛哲学。

当今，在哲学被边缘化时，与所谓实践哲学、论坛哲学相比较，讲坛哲学面临着更加深重的危机。实践哲学是“沉默”的大多数人的生活实践哲学，尽管难登大雅之堂，毕竟浸透着大众世俗的心灵和日用的智慧，透露着传统文化的遗传信息和现代社会的环境信息。论坛哲学是“自言自语”的少数人的哲学工作游戏，尽管难出象牙塔，毕竟反映了哲学精英的思想创造，表达了他们的独立精神。唯有构成哲学精英与大众“对话”的讲坛哲学，原本百事可做，结果千人一面、众口一辞，以至听者寥寥、观者茫茫，反而一事无成。

实践哲学主要受到大众的实在经济利益和文化价值观念的驱动；论坛哲学主要受到哲学精英的智慧和人格的驱动。有两个重要因素支配着讲坛哲学：一是意识形态因素。长期以来，我们将哲学学科隶属于政治学科，把哲学教学变成了思想政治教育。这一做法败坏了哲学的形象和声誉，引起了逆反心理，并使思想政治工作化作“泡沫”。二是教育体制因素。现行教育体制把一切学科专业化，把一切考试标准化；加上教育体制改革观念落后、行动迟缓，造成了当前教育特别是人文教育（其中尤其是哲学教育）严重扭曲的局面。本本主义的唯书独尊、条条框框的死记硬背，是我们哲学课堂的现状。

我们认为，扭转这一局面的关键是因病施治、对症下药：第一，在哲学教学中必须遵守学术规范，体现学术创新。哲学教学首先并且主要不是任何一种思想政治教育工作，而是如同其它学科一样，关键在于输入学理、研究问题。第二，在哲学教学中应当注重哲学学科特点。哲学与其它学科是有关联的，但这一关联却不是肯定性的，而是否定性的。也就是说，其它学科是传授知识，以一种“正的方法”使人们现有的知识得到增进或扩展，而哲学则是省思知识，以一种“负的方法”使人们现有的知识得到合理性的追问或正当性的怀疑。同样，如果非要说讲坛哲学是传授知识的话，那么，讲坛哲学是传授关于无知的“知识”或知识的无知。

（2006年9月，载于《首都师范大学哲学系手册》[中英文对照]）

Three Ws of Philosophy

What is Philosophy?

In order to define philosophy, it would be better to return to the original state of philosophy rather than make a profound, tedious, systematic and theoretical argument. The plain conception often has self-evident and clear characteristics. From the lucid and lively sources of philosophy, we can recognize the spirit of philosophy and experience its power.

In the tradition of the Greek philosophy, philosophy means “loving the wisdom” rather than only the “wisdom”. The philosopher is “the one who loves wisdom” rather than “sophist”. It is because the corrupted sophists played pettifogging. Plato and Aristotle considered the sophists as the persons of distorting the truth and playing specious “wisdom”. That is why the Greek philosophical tradition named philosophy as “loving wisdom” rather than “wisdom” and the philosopher “the one who loves wisdom” rather than “sophist”.

According to the oracle of Delphi “know yourself”, Socrates accounted it as “know yourself ignorant” (namely “man should know that he himself is ignorant”). This thought can also be confirmed in the other philosophical tradition. In Chinese tradition, Confucius said: “Do bear in mind, You, what I am now teaching: when you know a thing, say that you know it; when you do not know a thing, admit you do not know it. That’s wisdom.” These sentences mean mostly the same. Man should know the limitation of his knowledge. Comparing to the ocean of the unknown, what he knows is just a drop in the ocean. Philosophy instructs us unsatisfied with what we have known, and leads us to the unknown world.

The fundamental difference between philosophy and the other disciplines is that, philosophy is not a kind of guidebook or encyclopedia or the consummate knowledge, but the reflection to knowledge. Such kind of reflection relies on the intellect and inspiration of the human being. Philosophy inspires intuition of looking for knowledge and fosters the quality of loving by exploiting the intellect and enlightening the spirit.

If knowledge is a huge building, the other discipline is used to build it, while philosophy is used to clean the place, lay the foundation and check the building. As the building uses the scaffolding philosophy uses the same conceptions, principles, categories and propositions, yet the senses are totally different.

But the modern philosophy has left the origin of philosophy of loving wisdom. In the modern philosophy, philosophy is first defined as “theoretical and systematical world view or the theoretical system of world view”; the second definition of philosophy in the modern age is that “the most fundamental and general methodology”; the third definition is “the generalization and summarization of all the scientific knowledge (natural science, social science and the science of the mind)”. When philosophy has said goodbye to the fame of “the summarization of all knowledge” and “the science of the science”, and when the other concrete scientific disciplines have been long separated from philosophy and developed rapidly, philosophy’s function has also changed. In this case, any attempt to make philosophy a kind of knowledge (guiding knowledge, encyclopedia and consummate knowledge) will make philosophy the “unwanted thing”, the philosopher the “unwanted person”.

In this case, when the claims as “philosophy is useless”, “philosophy is outdated” are just raising, the real challenge comes to philosophy and threatens its existence and development. The main responsibility should be born by the concurrent philosophy itself.

Regarding all kinds of misunderstanding of philosophy, we should first clean the origin of philosophy discipline. We study philosophy not to generalize and summarize the concrete subjects of knowledge, nor to judge the concrete subjects of knowledge, but to reflect the existing knowledge. In such kind of reflection the claims of the human intellect and spirit are expressed. If it is necessary to say that philosophy is knowledge, then philosophy is the knowledge of ignorance or the ignorance of knowledge.

Why to Study Philosophy?

The reason to study philosophy is the same as the reason to research philosophy. It is concerning the origin of philosophy.

According to Aristotle, the origin of philosophy exists in the human metaphysical intuition: the world is amazing, so is the life. Because of the curiosity and ignorance, human beings started the research of philosophy. It is the inherent motivation of the beginning of philosophy. Secondly, philosophy is originated in the social historical conditions. Only when the basic living welfare is guaranteed, could the human beings research this kind of knowledge. In a time when people all rush for living, philosophy will not be considered. It is the exterior condition of the beginning of philosophy.

The aim of researching philosophy is for wisdom but not for utility. Only the human beings with leisure can be interested in philosophy. It is a learning of freedom.

A question is often put forward, what is the use of philosophy? On the level of utility, indeed philosophy is almost “useless”. Philosophy study is not only of any help to promote the official position, earn money or to get fame and gain, but even disturb us to get those things with the development of our taste. But as Zhuangzi said, “what has no use is most useful.” We can argue for philosophy’s “most usefulness” from two points. The first is the relationship between philosophy and the concrete science. Philosophy is the necessary premise and ground for all the concrete science. For a theoretical system there is at least one element that the theoretical system cannot prove. That means, there is at least a preposition of theoretical premise or ground. It is philosophy that provides this premise. For instance, when we research the concrete cause-effect relationship, we must have a presumptive belief that “everything has its cause”. When we probe into a concrete rule in the world, we must have a presumptive belief that “everything has its rule”. Hence, any scientific proposition has at least one philosophical proposition. The second is from the point view of the relationship between philosophy and the reality, in which philosophy is the ground or guide of the real life. From any question of the reality, we can find at least one philosophical question. For instance, when we come up with the question “why to study philosophy?” the answer under the lowest level is “in order to pass examinations, get credits, graduate easily and find a job for living” etc. As long as we continue the questions of “why”, we’ll reach the philosophical questions. If we can give the question of “why to work” a considerable concrete answer “for living”, we can never give a definite answer to the question of “why to live”. It is a limitation: when the questions reach the level that cannot be answered, it is the philosophical question. Comparing with the answers to scientific questions, the answer to the philosophical questions is never single, but multiple. Its utmost “usefulness” lies in philosophys contributions to the significance and value of concrete science and reality.

How to Study Philosophy?

Only when we fundamentally understand the spirit of philosophy, can we grasp the method of study and philosophy research. It is again related to the history of philosophy.

According to Hegel, every system in the philosophical history is an element of philosophy itself. The opinions in the philosophical history are the reasonable moments of the development of spirit. The history of philosophy is neither the exhibition of thoughts, nor the battlefield of thoughts, but the development of the human spirit. A mortal persons body must decay but some of his physical, social and psychological elements will be passed down by his offspring. Just like that, in the history of philosophy, no theory as system will be immortal, but some of its elements will be remained and developed in the history.

Marx said, “Any true philosophy is the gem of its own era spirit…… an alive soul of civilization.”

In a word, we research philosophy not to show off our profoundness and to sneer at others superficialness; nor to boast our consistent truth and prove others falsity, but to take part in a spiritual adventure. As everybodys growth, the human being also experiences its childhood, adolescence and maturity. Today when we study three philosophical traditions of the world or the two traditions of western philosophy, we are re-experiencing the growth of the human spirit. Just as the situations in our growth, in the growth of the spirit, the human being has gained some valuable things, and at the same time lost some other valuable things. Maturity means that we gained the reason, but lose the enthusiasm. In ignorance we are indulged in knowledge; but with some knowledge, we have lost interest in knowledge. The spirit of philosophy is loving wisdom and seeking for knowledge. The enthusiasm of the “love” and the drive to seek for knowledge are more important than any wisdom and knowledge. Hence we must repeatedly experience the growth of the individual and the human being. Only when we step on the crest of knowledge and face the abyss of ignorance, can we experience philosophy.

Forum Philosophy, Lecture Philosophy and Practical Philosophy

The forms of philosophy can be divided into three sorts: forum philosophy, lecture philosophy and practical philosophy. Forum philosophy means that philosophers and practitioners make discourses to the trained group of philosophy. Such kind of action is purely for philosophy study. Practical philosophy is the philosophical opinions people use in the daily life. Lecture philosophy means that lectures are given by the philosophical elites to the untrained group of philosophy. The above three forms are undoubtedly mutually related. Lecture philosophy is the intermediate of forum philosophy and practical philosophy.

Practical philosophy is always “silent”, while lecture philosophy seems earlier than forum philosophy. Confucius traveled all over the countries but “wrote nothing”. He had “3000 students, with 72 elite inside.” His students compiled his speeches as Analects (Lun-Yu), which is the classics of the Confucian. Socrates often appeared in the Athenian market to give philosophical talks. Half of the works of his followers Plato and Aristotle are compiled as dialogues. It is apparent that the early philosophy was mostly lecture philosophy. As the writing and printing tools were invented and improved, forum philosophy has become superior to lecture philosophy.

Today when philosophy is marginalized, comparing with practical philosophy and forum philosophy, lecture philosophy is seriously threatened. As the living philosophy, practical philosophy is the wisdom for the ordinary use. Forum philosophy, which is almost a murmur of scholars, is the play of minority and reflects the creation of the elite and their independence although hard to get out of the ivory tower. As the linking between practical philosophy and forum philosophy, lecture philosophy now has nothing to do. It became pallid and unanimous with fewer listeners and hearers.

Practical philosophy is mainly driven by peoples economic profit and cultural value, while forum philosophy mainly by philosophical elites wisdom and personality. There are two important factors long dominated lecture philosophy: first is the ideology. In a long time we subjected philosophy to politics discipline, and philosophy teaching became the ideological and political education. It has corrupted the fame of philosophy and at the same time made the ideological and political education a bubble. The second is the educational system. The current educational system makes all the disciplines specialized, and all the examinations standardized. And what’s more, the idea of educational system reform is laggard, and the steps of the reform are sluggish, which lead to the current education, especially the philosophical education severely contorted. The state of our philosophical classroom is that dogmatism makes course books the only standard; and students only recite the rules and regulations in the course books.

In order to change the situation, the most important thing is to give the suitable remedy to the case. Firstly, the philosophical education must abide by academic rules and realize academic creation. The philosophical education is not any kind of ideological and political education. The important role for it is to infuse the academic reason and research questions. Secondly, the philosophical education must emphasize the characteristics of philosophy discipline. Philosophy has some relevance to other disciplines. But the relationship isn’t positive, but negative. That means, other disciplines impart knowledge, “positively” expand and aggrandize students’ knowledge; while philosophy questions and legitimately suspects the existing knowledge. Philosophy is a kind of reflection. If lecture philosophy is called knowledge imparting, it imparts “knowledge” about ignorance or the ignorance of knowledge.

Translated by Yu Jiang-xia（于江霞）